The Identified Problems In Yahoos Strategy

The Identified Problems In Yahoos Strategy Strategy considered being the lionized, under the lights word of business environment. A German proverb states, What is the use of running if you are not on the right road. Well crafted! Every business needs a strategically focussed plan to achieve its vision. Above all, an efficient management of the strategy under practice, bags the maximum concentration. This report extensively discusses the need for strategies and their characteristics in various distinct business environments and their implications in organizations. Beginning with the scrupulous analysis of the Yahoo!s peanut butter manifesto, It explains about the diverse theories and different levels of strategies embroiling with the various organizational levels in the pursuit of decision-making. Competitive Advantage is a yet another concept that storms every organization, to either sustain or improve their position in the market. The relationship between strategy and competitive advantage and its influence in the process o f making it have been deeply probed. Along with that, several other factors like situational and environmental analysis techniques such as SWOT, PESTEL etc influencing strategy and the concerned multi-dimensional perspectives of them are also congruently explored. Besides that it brings out a broad understanding of the contrasting differences of strategy in accordance with the industry and also exhibits the differences in control mechanisms applied to preside over and direction of the strategy. Finally, it concludes with a detailed spectacle of the trends in business strategies. 2. Yahoo!s Peanut Butter Manifesto Yahoo! Its You the company that emerged out hardly 16 years before, have been managing to long stand with its Internet services in the competitive business world. Their growth across the world prevents even an introduction. The scenario of this analysis assumes their case of Peanut Butter Manifesto [1]. 2.1 Identified Problems: Right from their start they enjoyed the triumphant position until few giants started competing in the war (business) field. For a period now, they are experiencing a slack due to few internal reasons, Lack of a focussed vision Lack of clarity of ownership and accountability Lack of decisiveness [1]. All these are absolutely strategic issues faced by them. Either their strategy is completely affected or they never had one in the first place. The Memo written by Mr. Brad Garlinghouse [1] provides evidence of the internal problems. They are completely related to the Leadership, Accountability, and Resource Management etc. 1.2 Analytical Expository: The views about the issues faced are strategic. Strategy is an all-embracing framework to take advantage of the resources to substantiate a favourable position. On mapping the identified problems to the corporate strategy model [1], The strategic position encompasses the environment, purpose, culture and capability factors. The issues faced match with majority of these factors. The strategic position of the organization is very weak and is majorly affected by the internal problems. The organizations span of growth proves it clearly. Internet, the field that can be ranged over at any angle would still provide profits. Yahoo! has overly exploited this opportunity and stretched far widely. This eventually had reduced their concentration on their competitive advantage. The company has about 41 Branded services outnumbering any other Internet services. Further down, they have 7 Non-Branded services and a length of 22 obsolete services. This totals about 70 ventures, which shows how inordinately they have been corporately entrepreneurial to fail in sustaining their competitive advantage. This could be their main problem. They need to have a proper vision in succeeding their position and advantage over others, just like Bill Gates Trustworthy Computing back in 2002. An organic redesigning of the organization has to take place to overcome present hurdles. This anal ysis would be stretched over the entire phase of explaining strategy and its dimensional levels in the remaining sections of the report. 3. Strategic Business Planning in Global Environment: Strategic Business Planning is the process of defining an organizations strategy and determining on dispensing its resources like investments, employees etc to achieve the defined goal. This includes the complete phase of the following, Analysis Choose and Generate Strategy Implement Strategy Directing and controlling it. In the global environment, there are numerous industries under which billions of businesses operate. They exhibit a myriad nature by orientating their focus. 3.1 Need for Strategic Business Planning: Numerous businesses become obsolete or show financial crisis in short fail to survive in the market, mainly because they fail to find themselves in the future. Which means they neither have a realizable vision nor succeeding in implementation. In other words they are not prepared for the uncertainties. There have been around 134,000 firms [2] showing strong manifestation of distress. Decision Making in the global environment is so intricate for an organization to tackle it effectively for profits. This requires Strategic Business Planning and Management. It helps them realize the vision by planning, organizing, directing and controlling every step they grasp. Organizations without strategic planning would lose its address in this crowd. In the global environment, been filled with public organization, the main need of a strategic is to fulfil stakeholder expectations. Global Environment has become a place, where customers alone are not the primary focus, but attracting stakeholders has major contribution, because the resource that any organization possess is been provided by the stakeholders rather than customers. The business input model has significantly changed. This kind of a competitive atmosphere ensures that businesses should have a robust competitive advantage over their competitors thereby making strategic planning as imperative. 3.2 Characteristics of Strategic Business Planning: Characteristics of Strategic Planning are deeply rooted. In general it posses various features like providing, Direction Business intending to be, Scope Markets to compete, Refining Activities to be undertaken, Advantage Better performances, Resources skills, assets, finance, relationship, technical competence etc. Environment Predicting the uncertainties [1], Back to our case in concern (Yahoo!s Peanut Butter Manifesto) [1], had they practiced a sinewy strategic business plan, they would have had better visions, completely refined activities by narrowing down their concentration, advantageous decisions, and an healthy distribution of the resources in accordance to their spectrum. Most striking characteristics of strategic business planning to achieve the competitive advantage are 3.3 Dimensions of Strategic Planning: In the Global environment, it is becoming increasingly inflexible as the stakeholders have increased and the customers have been attracted worldwide. Here it has 6 dimensions, where Senior Managerial decisions Huge resource dispenses Affect the long term welfare of the company Highly concerned about the future Strategic Business Units will be heavily affected Consequences due to the external environment [4]. 3.4 Levels of Strategy and Organization Decision Making: Organization basically has 3 decision-making levels, on each level strategy is integrated to deliver potential to the higher hierarchy. Johnson et al., say levels as, Corporate Level Business Level and Operational Level [1]. This could be well explained with the differing views of the organizations levels and nature of the decisions, Decision-making needs to be creative. Strategy in action makes sure that relevant activities are carried out and no redundancy or resource frittering happens. The previous practice of Yahoo had many trifling services, invoking lots of redundancies. The New strategy could refine them and decide on activities that signify the target. Any decision taken is not unescorted; it triggers the resistance in the succeeding level. Thus strategy has high influence on the decision-making phase evidencing why they need to be realizable; else it would disrupt the entire organizations culture and structure. 3.5 Difficulties in Global Environment External Drivers: Global Environment poses increased difficulties for any strategic planning and management. Various external factors play a vital role. External environment of any organization could be well understood by the situational analysis techniques, where PESTLE Analysis would help us in determining them. The external factors that intricates strategy planning in global environment are mainly, Strategic Global Alliances, Collaboration and Authority of Global Marketing Trade barriers Communication International Strategy selection Government Unions Legalization Culture Highly fluctuating currency trade-offs Gap between the globalization parameters Technological Revolution Financial Markets Here they are left with only two choices Cost Leadership differentiation International strategy National amenability or limited market Regional Strategy. Further they need to consider various expanding operators, which are 4. Strategies and Competitive Advantage: Competitive advantage forms the base of the strategy. The entire strategy is generated to realize the favourable position for the organization. 4.1 Differing theories and practice: Patterns of Strategy and Planning do not always follow the rational route. Exactly, Most of the time, the vision dreamt by the organization is seldom reachable. This gives rise to 2 different theories in practice. The Intended Strategy and The Emergent Strategy. The Intended or the designed strategy is the one that manager develops, whereas emergent strategies are those that evolve in the organization [5] like the Honda effect [6]. Intended strategy does not always work, whereas the realized strategy would work for sure, but it does not give a chance to every organization. The intended strategy is been designed for the company by a strong leadership capability. Intended or planned strategies have chances of failure, because we might delusively predict or anticipate the future, which could happen otherwise. Secondly, once when implemented, it will be hard to disengage ourselves. Finally, it could lead to improper definition of the structure of the future. 4.2 Best Route Does Singularity Exists? The strategies need not be always designed; it can develop in queer ways. Mintzberg says that strategies are either plan for the future (intended) or patterns of the past (emergent) [7], it is the responsibility of the organization to wisely choose which suits them the best. On evaluating both the process, it seems that intended strategy and emergent strategy both have their own limitations. Mintzberg suggests that learning [7] would be the best way, but global environment does not give enough time, which again contradicts. Hence the best route to develop strategy could be by developing a synergy between the two processes. The resource allocation is the root concern on both processes, therefore on evaluating the factors affecting resource allocation like organizational context and structural context, the synergy could be brought thereby leading to designed emergence to suit comfortably to achieve competitive advantage. 5. Different Strategies Different Dominance: There is no defined strategy; it needs to be changed as we change. As Marshall Goldsmith states, What got you here, will not take you there [8]. Strategy got the same rules. 5.1 Necessity of Different Strategy Views: Strategies are flexible and depend on the state of the market. Similar to products, competitive advantages behave as well, with emerging, maturing and declining. Strategy is structured and chose using various techniques called strategy formulation techniques. They are, porters 5 forces model, porters generic strategies etc., choosing between the three main porters strategies segmentation, cost leadership and differentiation. Here cost leadership and differentiation suit well for emerging competitive advantage. The BCG matrix and the ansoffs matrix help as well. Whereas the mature competitive advantage requires a sustaining strategy, like fortress defense, flanker brands or niche strategy to maximize the flow of profits to the remaining life, maintain and protect the business market. This involves customer loyalty retention as well. Market penetration could be a wise example. Cost leadership, differentiation and service quality model would be very source of sustainable competitive advantage. Thirdly on considering the declining competitive advantage, strategies like Harvesting, Maintenance, profitable survivor or niche could support the remaining life. The selection of strategy depends on the condition of the market share. 6. Strategy Various Scenarios of Action This section attempts to bring the contrasting features of the perceived competitive advantage and strategy deployment among profit based and non-profit based organization. 6.1 Contrasting Perspectives of Competitive Advantage: The basic differences between the two different types of organizations are The Organizational Purpose Profit Motive Assets The results of the Strategic Planning are orientated to the above-mentioned 3 categories. Difference between Non Profit and SME: Table S.No Non Profit SME Primary motive is serve common good Primary motive is to earn profit. Strategies focused on sticking with the mission definitely Depends on the external and Internal environments Intended strategy works most of the time Strategy is often realized. Concentration towards board development, fundraising and volunteer management Concentration towards profit, customers, stakeholders and brand. Treats employees the same Employees get more focus by salary or promotion Time is less significant in monitoring the strategic plan as long as we stick with the service. Time is the dominant factor, and if anything is not achievable, the vision could be modified to accept the realizing strategy. Priorities not changed to achieve goals. Priorities can be changed if needed. Frequency of monitoring is less Frequency of monitoring is high Control over employees performance is low Control over employees performance is high. Strict adherence to the strategy, since it was built upon the missionary values Strategy adherence is libertarian Highly accountable to the board comparatively Not so high Highly motivated by community service Highly motivated by profits Tends to serve who could not afford Serves only to those who afford. Concentrates on services offered Concentrates on organizational growth Goals are often vague Goals are highly defined. 6.2 Customary and Current trends: The term strategy has evolved over a long period of time. Strategic Business planning has changed the way the world looked at business evidently. In the mid of 1950s, budgetary was the theme of business, whereas now strategic innovation is the theme of business. Multinational companies, conglomerates, efficient business model, and virtual integration etc has changed business was once. The history of strategic business planning is phenomenal. Early 21st century, the stock value depended only on the profits, then people started excessive short-term earnings and managed stock valuations through reported earnings. This had led to the evolution of complicated and hard to achieve sources of competitive advantage. This encouraged the quest for the new model of the corporation [9]. This further led to the massive redesigning of the organization with capability-based, process based, and project based structures. New leader jumped into the field of business and drifted it away from the traditi onal methods save for profit earning objective. Table 1950s 60s 70s 70s 80s 80s 90s 2000s Theme Budgetary, Planning Control Corporate Planning Positioning Competitive Advantage Strategic Innovation Organizational Implications Coordination and Control Planning divisions Diversification, Strategies, Matrix Restructuring, Outsourcing Networks, Virtual Organization 7. Conclusion: The detailed view Strategic Business Planning and Management had been explored, including the theories under practice. The case of Yahoo! appeared to be quite interesting as such a multinational organization spanning over 70 businesses did not have a proper vision to align themselves at their services. There are numerous competitors with strong vision and robust plans have entered the market, for them to take redesign their organization and its culture. The need for strategic planning in the global environment is mandatory. Though there happens to be various difficulties it would be a hindering for the future as the business world has always accepted changes. This report critically analyzed the strategic planning differences for profit and non-profit organizations and the primary motives of control. Maree Conway says that the value of futures approach in Strategic Planning. It actually positions the organization in the time ahead of it by dynamically and rationally providing an appro ach to exploit the resources and opportunities, along with the warning signals of the uncertainties. And recent researches say the strategic planning would give way to process over product conceptualization, which might bring a radical change in the businesses are now.

The Big Society: A Realistic Objective or a Political Myth?

Chapter 1 IntroductionSocio-political backgroundThe connection between civil society and the state reflects the changing nature of the public – private interaction and poses questions about the role of government in advanced capitalist societies. The constantly changing dynamics of the public-private coexistence is a direct response to the processes of globalization and modernization, which have placed the state in an entirely different realm, and have challenged its parameters as a political entity. On the international level, what Samuel Huntington called â€Å"the third wave of democratization† (1991) has seen the globalization of world politics, and according to some, the undermined capacity of the state (Cerny, 1990; Scholte, 2006; Rosenau 1990). The third wave of democratization in the world has also been marked by the rise of the global civil society and the increasing power of non-governmental organizations and associations (Bull, 1977). On the domestic level, a similar process can be traced. Throughout the last several decades, the traditional political ubiquity of the state has been challenged, with the rise of civil society and associational democracy (Baccaro, 2002). The state no longer exists in its exhausted and narrow confinement as a ‘provider’ of public services. Its functions, theorists like Baccaro argue, have been divulged to the local communities and voluntary associations, which have become the new pillar not only of public opinion, but also for public advocacy in legislature. Civil society challenges the modern state to some extent, but its functions do not aim to undermine its capabilities. As this dissertation will argue, they seek to reinforce them.1.2 Research aimsThis dissertation will examine the feasibility and sustainability of the Big Society Project as a model of political governance. In order to do this, the author will focus on the connection between the private and the public in the contemporary state, and will assess the resuscitating power of civil society in the public sector. It will illustrate the theoretical connection between the two through the critical analysis of a rather contemporary juxtaposition between civil society and the state, proposed by the Conservative Party in 2010. Specific aspects will cover the shift of state powers from the public to the private realm.1.3 Historical trends before the Big SocietyAlthough the Big Society was represented as a strategy by the Conservative Party, its ideological tenets can be found in earlier observations, related to the rise of an independent civil state and community participation. Attempts to accommodate civil society and the state in the same political equation have started at the turn of the last century, with a deep reconsideration of the main characteristics of advanced capitalist societies and the role of the state. A leading Marxist theorist, Antonio Gramsci proposes a classic division between the state and non-state elements of governance in his Selections from the Prison Notebooks (1971). He views civil society as an organic entity, which exists beyond the realm of the government. The controversy in his theoretical model of governance comes from the exaggerated view that the civil society can exist as a self-regulatory body in a stateless world. A more moderate view on the connection between civil society and the state is proposed by sociologist Max Weber. In his Politics of the Civil Society Weber discusses the idea of public citizenship and its role in mass democracy. He discusses civil society not as an alternative, but as a cultivating force, neces sary for the existence of the modern state (Weber, 2004). The Weberian approach to understanding civil society suggests that the connection between the public and private is not necessarily exclusionary, as suggested by the Marxists. In his 1962 Capitalism and Political Freedom, economist Milton Friedman discusses economic neo-liberalism as an important prerequisite for political freedom of the citizens. He emphasizes the central role of the government as a provider of legislature, which would enforce property rights and civil institutions. Friedman’s economic philosophy of government intervention suggests a model of public-private form of governance. In an extensive study on social movements called Beyond Left and Right, Anthony Giddens goes even further and suggests that social movements are stronger advocates for change than political parties are (Giddens, 1994). Last but not least, in his Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital (1995) Robert Putnam uses the decline of voluntary associations and civic engagement to explain the social decay of the American community. As symptoms of social apathy, he points out the political disengagement of the American public and its growing distrust to the government (Putnam, 1995). The ideological tenet of the Big Society can also be related to what Lucio Baccaro calls associational democracy (2002). He describes associational democracy as the intersection between civil society and the state. Baccaro’s vision of decentralization and empowerment of the local communities can be used to fit the Big Society into a wider theoretical realm. Baccaro offers a model of public-private governance, which reveals elements of societal conservatism behind the Big Society’s main goal – the shift of regulatory powers from the government bureaucrats into the hands of the people. It is not difficult to notice a historical trend on the changing divisions between civil society and the state. Last several decades have witnessed a major shift towards empowerment of the private sector, and transfer of powers and regulatory functions in the hands civil society organizations. This trend does not necessarily mean however that the state as a provider of services and individual well-being is in decline. On the contrary, this historic tendency suggests that civil society is a pillar, not a threat to the state and can act as a channel for reform in the public sector. The next section will examine its contemporary manifestations as a policy, proposed by David Cameron and the Conservative Party in 2010.1.4. What is the Big SocietyIn July 2010 in Liverpool, after the general elections, David Cameron re-launched the Big Society Programme, which was to become part of the political platform of the new coalition government. The programme had five main tenets: localism and more power for the communities; volunteerism; transfer of power from central to local government; support of cooperatives, charities, and social enterprises; transparency of government legislation (Cameron, 2010). Under the Big Society programme, initiatives such as the Big Society Bank and the National Citizen Service (NCS) were established. The idea behind the Big Society is to attribute more responsibilities to the citizens as key participants in the policy-making process. According to David Cameron, its main purpose was to propose a ground up approach of governance, where power and ideas will derive from the people (Cameron, 2010). The Conservative Party proposed the Big Society Project as the engine of public sector reform. The government indicated that the Big Society would empower local communities in their attempts to solve problems in their own neighborhood, and to voice their opinions. 1.4.1 Ideology The ideology behind the Big Society is an unconventional type of conservatism. It views successful governance as a hybrid between the private and the public sectors, and citizens’ initiative as a prerequisite for associational democracy. The idea behind the Big Society is very often confused with classic Marxism, which offers an extreme and rather utopian view of civic associations as a necessary replacement of the state. The rise of a big society however, does not imply the demise of the state. The Big Society can be interpreted as a politically sensible response to the economic recession, poverty, and social breakdown. It has lead to Cameron’s recognition of the role of the public sector and volunteerism as antidotes of a disintegrating society (Bochel & Defty, 2010; Evans, 2011; Smith, 2010). The ideas of the Big Society diverge from the stance of some of David Cameron’s predecessors such as Margaret Thatcher, because it recognizes the role of non-state associ ations as advocates for political change and providers for the citizens. At the same time, it does not use the societal factor as an umbrella for a smaller government (Norman, 2011; Smith, 2010). Therefore, the ideology behind the Big Society can be described as societal conservatism. Societal should not be confused with social (or socialist), because the Big Society project does not exclude privatization within the welfare sector and public sector cuts. 1.4.2 Responses The Big Society project has provoked mixed responses. Its supporters claim that the idea to unite the public and the private sector as providers for the citizens is revolutionary and democratically advanced. Liberals tend to view this idea as innovative, because it emphasizes the role of the citizens in shaping modern day policy. The main criticisms of the Big Society are that is has been used to justify the radical budget cuts in the public and social sectors, and is too utopian to be implemented in practice. A popular criticism points to the lack of citizens’ incentive and appropriate skills, which are prerequisites for a fulfilling civic participation (Grint & Holt, 2011; Hasan, 2010). 1.4.3 Local empowerment and decentralization Localism and decentralization have been key tenets on the Big society agenda. Some of the proposals, designed to empower local authorities and citizens include introducing directly elected mayors and police commissioners; devolving the financial powers of local government; increasing transparency and letting local citizens choose the organisational structure of their local council (Inside Government, 2011). The ideology behind local empowerment and decentralization is akin to the neo-liberal political thought. The transformation of local empowerment into an actual policy came to life in March 2011, when the Localism Bill was passed by the House of Commons despite controversies over social housing (Hodge, 2011). Some of the prescriptions of the Localism Bill have already been put into practice. Ministers have started giving councils greater financial freedom, by devolving ?7 billion more of government funding. They have removed burdens and bureaucratic controls so that they local governments can prioritize budgets to support public services in ways, which meet the priorities of local people and communities (Communities & Local Government, 2011). This is one way to enhance reform in the public sector, as it will give more incentive for local governments to improve their services, and they will be transformed from recipients of policy, into actual initiators of one. 1.4.4 Volunteerism Another important tenet of the Big Society Project is the idea of volunteerism and civic associations. The new government has encouraged voluntary organizations and social enterprises, as another way to reform the public sector. Two of the key programmes, related to Big Society volunteerism are the National Citizens Service (NCS) and Community Organizers. These two programmes target thousands of volunteers of all age groups and different social backgrounds nationwide, and their participation in community projects in 2011 and 2012 (Cabinet Office, 2011). The ideology behind volunterrism relates to associational democracy, which holds that democratization does not necessarily come from the state, but also from the citizenry, with its accumulated incentives and skills. As far as policy is concerned, both NCS and Community Organizers already exist as programmes. Whether efficacy has been achieved will be discussed in detail in the following chapters. In general, the Big Society is an opportunity for citizens to participate in the actual process of policy-making and to provide first-hand feedback to those responsible for legislation. The most important component of the Big Society is the financial autonomy of the local councils, because it will play important part in the allocation of budgets. Local councils know the needs of their residents better than the national government (Smith, 2010; Norman, 2011). Their financial plans will be much more realistic and sustainable, targeting the public sectors policies, which have the biggest demand and have been starved for resources in the past. Financial decentralization can bring not only better quality of public sector services, but also more realistic response to the actual needs of the local residents.1.5 SummaryThis chapter has traced the historical and policy features of the idea of the Big Society, and has examined some of its basic tenets. The remaining chapters will examine in de tail the feasibility of the Big Society as a form of political governance, which can make local communities more involved in the policy-making process. Bibliography: Baccaro, L. (2002) â€Å"Civil Society Meets the State: A Model of Associational Democracy†. International Labour Office Working Paper No. DP/138/2002. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=334860 or doi:10.2139/ssrn.334860 Retrieved 05.03.2012 Bochel, H. & Defty, A. (2010) â€Å"Safe as HouseConservative Social Policy, Public Opinion and Parliament†, The Political Quarterly, Vol 81, No 1, January-March Bull, H. (1977). The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillian Cabinet Office (2010) â€Å"Government Launches Big Society Programme†, 18 May, Available at: http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/news/government-launches-big-society-programme Retrieved 05.03.2012 ___________ (2010) â€Å"Government Puts Big Society at the Heart of Public Sector Reform†, 18 May Available at: http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/news/big-society-heart-public-sector-reform Retrieved 05.03.2012 ___________ (2010) â€Å"Building the Big Society†, Available at: http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/sites/default/files/resources/building-big-society.pdf Retrieved 05.03.2012 Cameron, D. (2010) â€Å"Big Society Speech†, Monday, 19 July Available at: http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/speeches-and-transcripts/2010/07/big-society-speech-53572 Retrieved 05.03.2012 Cerny, P.G. (1990). The Changing Architecture of Politics: Structure, Agency and the Future of the State, London Communities and Local Government (2011) â€Å"The Localism Bill marks a turning point†, 7 June, Available at: http://www.communities.gov.uk/news/corporate/1917316 Retrieved 05.03.2012 Della Porta, D. & Diani, M. (2006). Social Movements: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, UK. p. 93-113 Evans, K. (2011) â€Å"Big Society in the UK: A Policy Review†, Vol 25, Issue 2, pp. 164-171, March Friedman, M. (1962) â€Å"The Relation between Economic Freedom and Political Freedom,† Capitalism and Freedom. University of Chicago Press, pp. 7-17 Available at: http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ipe/friedman.htm Retrieved 05.03.2012 Giddens, A. (1994) Beyond Left and Right. The Future of Radical Politics, Stanford University Press Gramsci, A. (1971) Selections from the Prison Notebooks, Lawrence and Wishart Grint, K. & Holt, C. (2011) â€Å"Leading Questions: If ‘Total Place’, ‘Big Society’ and local leadership are the answers: What’s the question?†, Leadership, 7 (I) 85-98 Hasan, M. (2010) â€Å"The Sham of Cameron’s Big Society†, New Statesman, 22 November Hodge, K. (2011) â€Å"Localism bill passed, advice for the elderly and regeneration cash†, Housing Network Blog, Guardian, 19 May Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/housing-network/2011/may/19/localism-bill-advice-elderly-regeneration-cash Retrieved 05.03.2012 Huntington, S. P. (1991) Democracy’s Third Wave. The Journal of Democracy, 2(2) Inside Government (2011) â€Å"Big Society 2011: Empowering Communities, Encouraging Social Action and Opening Up Public Services†, 31 March Available at: http://www.insidegovernment.co.uk/economic_dev/big-society-2011/ Retrieved 05.03.2012 Marquand, D. (2004) The Decline of the Public: Hollowing Out Citizenship, Polity Press, Cambridge Norman, J. (2011) The Anatomy of the New Politics Buckingham: University of Buckingham Press Putnam, R. (1995). â€Å"Bowling Alone. America’s Declining Social Capital† Journal of Democracy 6, 65-78 Available at: http://canonsociaalwerk.be/1995_Putnam/1995,%20Putnam,%20bowling%20alone.pdf Rosenau, J.N. (1990) Turbulence in World Politics: A Theory and Continuity, London Scholte, J.A.(2006). Globalization a Critical Introduction. Palgrave Macmilian, UK. p. 13-123 Smith, M. (2010) â€Å"From Big Government to Big Society: Changing the State–Society Balance†, Parliamentary Affairs, Vol. 63, Issue 4, pp. 818-833 Weber, M. (2004) Politics of the Civil Society, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Bone and Joint Histology

* It is a specialised connective tissue. * Osteogenic cells ⇒ osteoblast (makes matrix, active when young, and after fracture) ⇒ osteocyte ⇒ osteoclast (functions in resorption, breakdown of bone matrix) (makes cavities) (from blood monocyte) Bone Functions * Framework for support of the skeleton * Protection: brain, spinal cord, lungs and heart * Levers for muscles attached to them via tendons * Reservoir for minerals e.g. calcium, magnesium, phosphates etc. Bone Matrix * Components * Extracellular matrix (ground substance and fibres) consists of inorganic material (65%) e.g. calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, fluoride, citrate, sulfate, and hydroxide. * Minerals give bone hardness and rigidity * Organic component (35%) mostly type I collagen (95%)- gives bone slight flexibility; and ground substance e.g. GAGs with proteoglycans, which contain chondroitin and keratin sulfates which give bone resilience * Development 1. Bone starts as osteoid, which is collagen and GAG’s with no minerals 2. Bone becomes mineralised (immature, primary, or woven bone). It is the first bone to appear in development and in repair after fractures 3. Bone starts to remodel as the adult form (mature, secondary, lamellar) Bone Cells 1. Osteoprogenitor (osteogenic) cells: from embryonic mesenchyme, which differentiate into osteoblasts. Found in inner cellular layer of the periosteum, lining Haversian canals, in the endosteum (lining medullary cavity) 2. Osteoblasts: derived from osteoprogenitor cells, form and grow new bone by synthesis of organic components of bone matrix. Found on the surfaces of existing bone tissue where they deposit new bone matrix (osteoid) which contains no minerals. Later mineralization occurs, tissue is new bone. Osteoblasts extend processes with neighbouring osteoblasts for molecular transport. Sit on the edge of bone. 3. Osteocytes: flat cells with small cytoplasmic processes. Aid in the maintenance of bone tissue and storage of minerals. Each osteoblast becomes surrounded by secreted matrix, once this occurs, the cell is known as an osteocyte (mature bone cell), and the space it occupies is a lacuna. Radiating out in all directions from the lacuna are tunnel-like spaces (canaliculi) which house the cytoplasmic processes of the osteocytes. The canaliculi allow transfer of nutrients, wastes between the osteocytes and blood. They are very active cells. Communicate via cytoplasmic processes in the canaliculi, metabolic communication. 4. Osteoclasts: large motile, multinucleated cells (150 um diameter) which contain up to 50 nuclei. These cells break up and resorb bone. Osteoclasts occupy shallow depressions (Howship’s lacunae). The ruffled border (infolded plasma membrane) is that part of the cell that is directly involved in the resorption of bone. It removes bone enzymatically, mineral deficiencies then the osteoclasts become active to release the minerals that have been stored in bone, hence the person becomes fracture prone. The multinuclear nature of the osteoclasts is a good identifying factor Periosteum and Endosteum * Vascular, fibrous layer surrounds bone except over articular surfaces. * 2 layers * Outer layer is collagen with some elastic fibres. This layer distributes vascular and nerve supply to bone. * Inner layer is cellular (osteogenic layer, osteoprogenitor cells), gives rise to new bone. * Central cavity of bone is lined with endosteum- thin CT composed of osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts. * From the outer layer of periosteum, fine bundles of collagenous fibres (Sharpey’s) penetrate the underlying bone at intervals to attach the periosteum, especially at the sites of attachment of tendons and ligaments. * The periosteum contains blood vessels, nerve endings, and ligament and tendon attachments. Mature bone Organisation * Dense (compact) at the edge * This type has Haversian systems (osteons) which is a complex of 4- 20 concentric, bony circular lamellae surrounding a central (Haversian) canal (20- 100 ÃŽ ¼m diameter) * The canal contains blood vessels, lymphatics, with a few unmyelinated nerve fibres, loose CT and flattened osteogenic cells and osteoblast cells that line the lumen of the canal * Osteocytes are in lacunae (in the concentric lamellae) located within or between the lamellae * A second arrangement of lamellae is found between the osteons (interstitial lamellae- formed by the collapse of old Haversian systems). These are remnants of older, partially resorbed Haversian systems. * A third arrangement (circumferential lamellae) are rings of bone around the entire bone, beneath the periosteum * Radiating from the lacunae are tiny channels (canaliculi). Processes of the osteocytes enter these canals and communicate with adjacent osteocytes where an exchange of gases occurs, nutrients are supplied to the cells and metabolic wastes are eliminated. * The Haversian canals communicate with the marrow cavity, the periosteum and with each other via the transverse Volkmann’s canals, which run at right angles to the long axis of the bone. Each osteon has a cement line of calcified ground substance with some collagen fibres. * Spongy (Cancelllous Bone): * This type is not organised into Haversian systems but is a meshwork of thin bars (lamellae) or trabeculae of bone lining the marrow cavity * The spaces within this latticework are filled with bone marrow. The trabeculae house osteocytes in lacunae that are fed by diffusion from the marrow cavity. Blood and Nerve Supply * Bones have periosteal vessels, which penetrate the bone of the diaphysis of long bones and divide into branches that enter the Haversian systems. These vessels supply the osteocytes embedded in the calcified matrix. * Larger vessels pierce the epiphysis to supply the spongy bone and the midshaft to supply the medullary cavity. * Small myelinated and unmyelinated nerves go into the Haversian canals. * The periosteum contains many pain fibres which makes it sensitive to injury e.g. blow to the tibia Bone Development and Growth Histogenesis (differentiation) * Bone development is mesodermal in origin and if the tissue is membrane like (a sheet of mesenchyme or loose CT), it is intramembranous bone formation * If bone replaces cartilage that is largely resorbed before bone is formed, this is endochondral (intracartilaginous) bone development. Intramembranous Bone formation * The process involves mesenchyme to bone directly (osteoblast laying bone) * Locations: flat bones, e.g. the skull, mandible, clavicle Endochondral bone formation * The process in this type of bone formation occurs in 2 steps: 1. A miniature hyaline cartilage model is formed in the region where the bone is to grow within the embryo 2. The cartilage model grows appositionally and interstitially and serves as a structural scaffold for bone development. It is then resorbed and replaced by bone (all the cartilage is replaced by bone) * Locations: long, short bones, pelvis and vertebrae Developing bone region at epiphyseal plate * Area between shaft and epiphysis is the epiphyseal plate. * Proliferation occurs at the epiphyseal aspect and replacement by bone takes place at the diaphyseal side of the plate * Growth at both ends of the bone is hormone regulated * There are a series of 5 zones beginning at the centre of the disc and go towards the diaphysis: 1. Zone of reserve cartilage (resting zone) : chondrocytes through the matrix are mitotically active producing hyaline cartilage 2. Zone of proliferation: chondrocytes proliferate and form stacks of cells that parallel the direction of bone growth. (Cartilage dies- lose blood cells- hence the bone invades the space) 3. Zone of maturation and hypertrophy (Expanding): chondrocytes mature, hypertrophy and accumulate glycogen in their cytoplasm. No mitosis occurs 4. Zone of calcification and cell death: Chondrocytes die and the cartilage matrix becomes calcified impregnated with calcium and phosphorus 5. Zone of ossification: blood vessels invade spaces left by the dying chondrocytes carrying osteoprogenitor cells from the periosteum and differentiate into osteoblasts which elaborate matrix that becomes calcified on the surface of calcified cartilage. As the matrix calcifies, some osteoblasts are entrapped as osteocytes and bone trabeculae are formed. Coalescence of trabeculae creates spongy bone. Resorption of spongy bone by osteoclasts in the centre of the diaphysis enlarges the medullary cavity. Summary of histochemical processes for both models of bone formation * Osteoblasts secrete osteoid with no minerals * Formation of primary bone whereby osteoid is mineralized * Formation of secondary bone as compact or spongy bone Growth in length of long bone * Due to interstitial growth of epiphyseal cartilage * Growth continues until around 20 when the epiphyseal plate closes (cartilage is replaced by bone) and growth in length stops Growth in width of long bone * As a result of appositional growth from the surface and resorption by osteoclasts of the inner shaft so that the marrow space can be enlarged Bone Remodelling * Continual remodelling occurs in response to forces (e.g. teeth growing jawbones). Bone is deposited due to traction and resorbed due to pressure. * In young, bone deposition exceeds bone resorption. In the adult bone deposition is balanced with resorption. Joints * Joints are classified according to the degree of movement between the bones of the joint: * Synarthroses: little or no movement. There are 3 types based on the tissue making up the union: * Syndesmosis is the union of bones by dense CT e.g tibiofibular and radioulnar joints * Synchondrosis is a junction by cartilage e.g. IVDs and symphysis pubis * Synostosis is a joint united by bone e.g. skull sutures (Starts off as fontanelles) * Diarthroidal (synovial) e.g. knee, hip, shoulder have great freedom of movement and have a CT capsule around a joint cavity held by ligaments. * The joint has an articular cartilage (hyaline) with no perichondrium. The capsule is lined (except over the articular surfaces) with a cellular, vascular, folded synovial membrane made of loose CT which secretes a viscous lubricating, synovial fluid. The viscosity of the fluid varies with temperature. *Fibrous- collagen- little to no movement- interosseous ligament *Gomphosis- tooth joined by cartilage

Personal Statement Auto Education - 3418 Words

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